2015 Ancient Art

The attribution of architectural fragments, which were found during the archaeological researches of antique monuments of the Northern Black Sea Coast used to be rather difficult. Elements of the destroyed buildings are found in various condition or, worse, in secondary use, having no reliable communication with the architectural context. Comparison with other reliably dated constructions of the classical antiquity is the main direction of the research, in attempts to date and reconstruct the buildings. It, in turn, causes difficulties connected with the limited number of well preserved constructions and not fully developed chronological classification of architectural details.
The goal of the research is to identify the most specific directions of the development of the Doric frieze of triglyphs and metopes. The objects of research are the identification of morphological signs with statistically significant variability, the differentiation of material on the basis of these signs and the interpretation of the revealed groups of objects, on account of the culturally significant external signs, such as the regional and dating characteristics of architectural details. Geometrical morphometrics and factorial analysis are the methodical base of our research. Drawings of Doric monuments of various regions of the classical antiquity served as the material for the research. Chronological framework: 6th century BC — 2nd century AD.
Some morphological characteristics which have strong correlation with place and time of origin have been defined as a result of this research. It has been established that the most significant characteristic is the shape of the glyphs. Based on this, it is possible to trace the main vectors of the frieze elements’ development.

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The typology of the apadana palace has a significant place in the classical architecture of the Achaemenid Iran. The apadana is a specific type of Persian palace, which is based on the hypostyle hall, intended for royal audiences and other ritual ceremonies. The design of the apadana was influenced by various traditions and can be considered a synthesis of Median, Egyptian, Greek, Mesopotamian and Hittite architecture. This type embodied the ideological and ceremonial principles of imperial Achaemenid art. Moreover, the type of the audience palace influenced the further development of Persian architecture in the 5th–4th centuries BC.
This paper focuses on the problem of the origin of the apadana, with special attention to the other ancient oriental architectural traditions that influenced this type.The research of apadanas will be carried out in the context of early Achaemenid architecture.This method is the most productive way to approach issues relevant to the apadana typology in the architecture of the Achaemenid Iran.

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The aim of the study is to systematize the religious architecture of Urartu and to determine the main stages of the evolution of architecture throughout the history of Urartu until the 6th century BC. In order to achieve this goal, the structural features of buildings, dedicated to the God Khaldi (the chief God of the country) will be considered in the report. The characteristic features of temples’ structure, such as the dimensions of the temple, types of columns and roof-constructions, will be analyzed.
By reconstructing the ritual dedicated to the God Khaldi, the correlation between the ceremony and architectural complexes can be traced.
As examples the most famous temples, including the temple of Khaldi and the temple-susi in Ere­buni Fortress, the temple of Khaldi in Altıntepe will be considered. Special attention will be given to the Musasir temple — the unique construction of the 8th century BC. The temple has not survived, and the only sources are a sketch of the relief found in Dur-Sharrukin, and the annals of Sargon II, which contain the description of the campaign to Musasir in 714 BC. A reconstruction of the temple (3D model) will also be proposed.
In addition, the cultural relations and influences of adjoining countries and regions, such as Assyria, Phrygia, the Hittite kingdom will be analyzed in the light of our topic.

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This paper is about the configuration and function of courtyards in the Anatolian architecture of the 2nd millennium BC. The term “courtyard” itself is not easily defined and many different readings are available, but in the current study we are primarily interested in courtyards as open spaces enclosed in architectural complexes (e.g. “inner courtyards”). These are attested in both cult buildings (temples) and administrative/representative buildings (“palaces”). These open spaces (both singular ones or systems of multiple courtyards) organised and controlled movement throughout the complex, but could also serve as a place for gatherings and rituals; thus, they had both structural and semantic functions.
The paper will provide a study of various building complexes, with special attention to a group of the most interesting ones, including (but not limited to) Beycesultan V (the so-called “Burnt Palace”), Kültepe, Acemhöyük; palaces and temples of major Hittite centres such as Alacahöyük, Boğazkale/Hattusa, Kuşaklı/Sarissa and others.
The topic of courtyards constitutes a key problem of 2nd millennium BC architecture. The aforementioned complexes are an integral part of the Near Eastern building traditions, but certain distinctive traits are attested mostly in ancient Asia Minor. Many of them also exemplify the connection between courtyards and porticos, thus contributing to the study of detached columns in ancient architecture. The buildings under consideration also influenced the architecture of the 1st millennium BC in Asia Minor and adjacent regions.

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The original Celtic art developed in parallel with Ancient Greek and Roman art. The Celtic coins represent a special sphere of the Celtic applied arts, especially the art of toreutics. But among the studies of Celtic art, the coin images are underrepresented. This area deserves special attention from the standpoint of art history.
This research is dedicated to the Celtic coin images from the 4th to the 1st century BC and their connections with the other works of Celtic art. During the investigation the author used complex method of the modern art studies.
At first Celtic coins were struck in imitation of the Greek and Roman prototypes. But later Celtic craftsmen transformed the original image and showed their artistic individuality. Comparative analy­sis of the coin images and the works of applied arts shows that we can find the main features of the Plastic Style, which had developed in the Celtic art in the 3rd century BC, on the coin images, such as the schematization of the images, its decor, ornament, relief and filling up the whole space of the item with the help of S-shaped curves, spirals, triple spirals called triskele, lyres etc. Sometimes these elements form not easily visible ornamental images of human or animal heads. Despite their apparent fragmentation, they create a united artistic field.
In spite of the evident connections between the Celtic coin images, the works of high artistic quality, and the Celtic art of toreutics, Celtic coinage stands out as an independent form of Celtic art because of its particular qualities related to the small round shape of the coin, iconography and stylistics of the images and certainly its symbolic meaning.

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Celtic art of the La Tene period was developed under influence of the Etruscan, Greek and Scythian art crafts in the 5th century BC. Motives like palmettos and lotos flowers were derived from the Etruscan and Greek art, zoomorph motives were developed unter Scythian influence. In the Celtic art these motives were developed into a style of its own with curvolinear patterns and phantastic depictions of humans and animals. Characteristic are anthropomorph masks. These artisitic patterns were used to decorate daily things, weapons and jewelry. From the 5th to 2nd centuries BC the Celtic art was changing several times from the Early Style to Waldalgesheim Style, the Plastic Style and the Sword Style. During the Roman Empire a special style was developed north of the Alps. Characteristic are a jour metal works in the “Celtic renaissance” of the Late Antique Period. In Ireland and Scotland the Celtic art survived until the medieval times. The La Tene Style was transformed under in­fluence of Oriental, Eastern Mediterranean, Christian and German art to a new form of artistic expression — visible on metal works, in book illustrations and on stone crosses. Later the Celtic art disappeared for centuries until it was rediscovered in the 18th century and even had influence on the vegetal style of Art Nouveau.

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The interpretation of the decoration of Neolithic-Chalcolithic figurines is still an open problem. Examination of this problem helps to set directions for future research: either reconstruction of real clothing, or the study of connection between the decoration of figurines and ceramics ornamentation. Besides decorational theory there are other opinions (as representation of tattoo or ritual swaddle of a deceased person.
The ornamentation is conditioned by several factors: stylized design, imitation of weaving and, in my opinion, the most important factor — the human body is the primary element for the artist, while clothes are only secondary. That’s why the dress is rendered flat. This shows the understanding of the human body in Tripolye-Cucuteni art. Clothing is merely some kind of a thin shell covering the body. It is no wonder, that costume is a gender denominator. According to Tripolye-Cucuteni and Balkan Neolithic material representation of genitals is of secondary importance for the artists.
Thus, identifying the decoration of figurines as representation of clothes, we can propose for future research the study of figurines as art objects, where decoration is an important iconographical attribute.

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Sculpture has always been оne of the most popular types of art in Sub-Saharan Africa. Bronzes were of great importance together with wooden carved sculpture.
West Africa, Nigeria in particular, has been the centre of bronze sculpture production for centuries. Local masters cast sculptures of high quality using the complex lost wax technique. Today scholars argue about the time and the way this technique first appeared in Sub-Saharan Africa. Its history and local characteristics are of a great importance and interest.
The current report traces the history of lost wax sculpture technique in Africa south of the Sahara, discusses its local characteristics and presents the finest examples of Nigerian bronzes from the museum collections in Europe.

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