2015 Renaissance Art

The term “kinemic knowledge” comprises two concepts. The first, “kinesthetic”, means the sensation of movement or strain in muscles and tendons — muscle sense. The second one, “emic”, means knowledge or interpretations existing within a culture and best described by a “native” of the culture. Kinemic knowledge describes traditional types of movements from the point of view which is “native” for studied culture. Within fine arts kinemic knowledge allows one to define correctly what movements were depicted by an artist, i.e. to interpret the meaning of the scene. On the contrary, absence of kinemic knowledge may lead to misunderstanding. Analyzing images of dance, professional and non-professional theatre performances and sport games and competitions and so on, one needs not only to be acquainted with the tradition of representation, but also to have kinemic knowledge of this culture, which is of great importance in this case.
In 14th–15th centuries most of the dance images were more or less symbolic and had additional meanings. Dance was one of the tools to transfer meanings. Studying this type of images a scholar should solve two problems: identify depicted scene as a dance scene and interpret correctly its features and, therefore, its meaning. If the scene was depicted by a representative of the same culture, using kinemic knowledge may help to avoid interpretation inaccuracy or even faults.
As an example of kinemic approach we will examine two etchings attributed to Baccio Baldini in the context of bassedance choreography culture of the 1400–1550s. Kinemic knowledge enables us to state that in both cases the pairs depicted are not “walking” or “standing” (as they are traditionally described) but “dancing”, performing basse dance — the dance type which is associated with European high culture of the Renaissance era. This conclusion allows to specify the meanings of the scene depicted and put one of the etchings in the “Dance macabre” context.

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Muses appear to be pictured in art of the Renaissance from the mid-15th century, possibly as the evidence which proves the link between the Renaissance culture and culture of Classical Antiquity. Their images are to be found in significant ensembles like paintings from Lionello d’Este’s studiolo at Belfiore palace, or a small Muse sanctuary close to Federico da Montefeltro’s studiolo at Palaz­zo Ducale di Urbino. In the works created by the artists of Quattrocento the images are filled with versatile allegoric sense that composes Classical and Medieval components bringing the result to a new quality.
In the very end of the 15th century series of separate images start to change into multi-figured compositions with a diversified programme like in “Parnassus” by Andrea Mantegna painted for Isa­bella d’Este’s studiolo at Mantua. It seems true that the apogee of the theme was reached in Raphael’s “Parnassus”, fresco painted by him for stanza della Segnatura at the Vatican palace, where the paradigm of the absolute harmony is born.
With the evident influence of the Renaissance, Muse images developed in the classicist painting of the 17th century — in the works by Nicolas Poussin, and the neo-classicist art of the 18th century — in those by Anton Raphael Mengs. It is notable though that in comparison with the programmatic riches characteristic of the Renaissance, they gradually lose their individuality and polysemantic meaning to become plain in their sense.

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The typology of Renaissance palazzo arises and develops in the 15th century in various cities throughout Italy and has some unique features everywhere. In this respect, Rome provides a very interesting and exemplary evolution of this typology. Roman palace type is not so articulated as the ones at Florence and in other artistic centers. In the first half of Quattrocento, the Avignon Papacy was just over, so the Roman private architecture developed in a chaotic manner and had neither theo­retical base nor consistent logic of artistic design.
In the middle of the 15th century the situation changes dramatically due to the shift of the general artistic agenda in Rome, and to the ruling of the pontiffs eager to create a new image of the Eternal City, including its architectural settings.
Exploring the initial stage of formation of a Renaissance palace in Rome, we will find the emergence of distinct typology in the Vatican Palace influenced by L. B. Alberti for humanist Pope Nicho­las V (1447–1455). Vatican received a new type of palace brought by the combination of Alberti’s theory and the idea of the revival of Rome (renovatio Romae). Based on traditional elements of Roman palaces of the first half of the 15th century, it is organized along with the classical concept of forms into an unified monumental structure.
Senior ecclesiastical leaders, striving to show their loyalty to the papacy, copied the architecture of Vatican in their residences. The program of the Vatican Palace responded to the needs of the Pope and defined the development of the Roman palace type of the second half of the 15th century. The report depicts the influence of this program on the facades, and on the planimetry of the Roman pala­ces of the second half of the 15th century.

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The problem of the Compagnie della Calza is mostly considered in the context of the Venetian public ceremonies and private feasts in the 15th–16th centuries.
This topic has never been studied in Russian historiography. Also we should mention that there is hardly any research in the literature on the Compagnie della Calza in the Venetian paintings of 15th–16th centuries. Our report aims to fill in the gap.
As for today the most fundamental research covering practically all the aspects of Comapgnie della Calza’s activities is the work of Lionello Venturi. The author gave most proper definition of the character of this unions as “a private society temporarily created by the noblest young men who have decided to unite their forces for the purpose of entertainment”.
The illustrative witnesses of how exactly Companions looked “at their full blossom” could be divided into three groups:
1. Drawings, prints and engravings made with documentary preciseness showing some coat of arms, stripes and tabs or even sometimes a concrete person who belonged to a certain Compagnia della Calza;
2. Paintings of the Venetian Renaissance artists who according to Venturi strived for depicting the reality with pedantic punctuality: “Procession in Piazza San Marco” by Gentile Bellini (1496), “The arrival of the English Ambassadors” by Vittore Carpaccio (1495–1500), and others;
3. Compagnie della Calza are also met in the works of artists where the subject line is either hidden or is absent at all. For instance the male character of Giorgione’s “La Tempesta” is dressed in the hoses of different colours. Or in the Dzanetti’s engraving based on Titian’s fresco and later coloured by Grevembrock we see a personage in different hoses too. In the “Pastoral Concert” whose attribution to Giorgione or Titian is still disputable we see that the man who holds an instrument in his hands is also dressed in striped hoses. The stripes are clearly seen as the light falls on his knee.
The research of the phenomenon of Compagnie della Calza in the social life of the Republic of Venice in the15th–16th centuries opens to the historians of art a remarkable opportunity to find additional, sometimes hidden subjects and senses in the well-known programme of works of art.

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The report examines main principles and specific techniques in the presentation of art and natural-science collections in the period of the 15th–17th centuries, using the example of European countries.
The author focuses on two main exhibition types — rooms and cabinets of curiosities, and representative palace galleries, which were widespread in this period and formed a peculiar kind of presentation in the context of the leading architectural and artistic style, scientific worldview and the dominant ideology.
The article analyses the principles and forms of monumental and decorative ensemble of galleries and exposition organization of universal cabinets and storages, as a first step of forming exhibition techniques and presentation of collections in the nascent European museums. It had a significant effect on subsequent periods of their development. The article also provides extensive visual material — engravings of the period, titles of published catalogs, images of exhibition spaces in the paintings, contemporary photographs of the largest palaces of the period.

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The Renaissance is one of the most important periods in the history of European art. Having origi­nated in Italy, the Renaissance gradually spread through all the countries of the Old World, however, in each of them it obtained peculiar characteristics. Renaissance reached Spain in the beginning of the 15th century, however only at the beginning of the 16th century an important change occurred, as a result of which all the processes in art obtained new characteristics of great value.
The members of a highly respected Mendos family were the first to build palaces and castles, basing themselves on new features of the Italian Renaissance. For Spain they were like Medici for Italy but they were closely connected not with the leading centers of Renaissance Italy but with the northern areas, where the impact of France prevailed.
At the beginning the Renaissance architecture in Spain was a mixture of different styles and directions that dominated the country during its existence. Casa de las Conchas, the palace of Dukes Infantado in Gwadalhara, and Monsares el Real near Madrid — all these and some other constructions are typical examples of the early Renaissance in Spain. On the one hand, the traditions of Italian art can be found in them. However, these features are not just copied but borrowed and adopted to local traditions. That is why, on the other hand, in each of these constructions the impact of Plateresco style and of the reminiscence of bygone Mudehar style can be noticed as well.
Although this period of Spanish art is not covered enough in Russian historiography, it represents an important step of development of Renaissance in Spain. It became a transition period from Plateresco and Isabellino art, which dominated governmental orders, to the art of Italian Renaissance, which came to the country at the beginning of the 16th century.

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Activity of Enea Silvio Piccolomini was aimed at glorifying his hometown, the memory of his family and his own acts. He had a curious life merging a Renaissance humanist and an important religious figure. He shows a rather rare example of a Renaissance memoirist. His “Commentarii rerum memorabilium” reflect the formation of his personality and his role in the Italian history. Pieces of art related to him pursued the same goal. We can divide them into those that were commissioned by him and those that were created according to the order of his contemporaries and followers.
Piccolomini came from an ancient family and wished to glorify his kin and his home town. This wish is revealed in his patronage of art. He turns his place of birth, a small town Corsignano, into Pienza — an ideal city according to humanists’ conception.
Main buildings of the city gave the possibility to express his origin and cultural predilections. Windows of the palace overlook Siena, where the future Pope was bred, and a beautiful landscape. The architectural ensemble reflects his personal memories. The innovative architectural setting of the palazzo Piccolomini is enriched with antique decorations. The Duomo of Pienza reproduces the structure of hall churches that are typical for Germany and impressed the Pope. This ensemble is important for the history of the Renaissance urban planning and perpetuates the memory of a current histo­rical character.
The Sienese were proud of the link between Pius II and Siena. They emphasized this by depicting significant moments of his life on biccherne. The history of life of E. S. Piccolomini is commemorated in the decoration of the library in the Duomo of Siena. Pinturicchio realized this work of art after his death according to the order of his nephew, cardinal Francesco Piccolomini. The patron based the programme of the murals on the text of “Commentarii”. The library became a symbol of the cardinal’s gratitude. It contains the further commemoration and glorification of the Piccolomini family and his great relative.

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The eventful history of the Crimean Peninsula has defined the multicultural nature of local architecture. Many art historians have focused their attention on the topic of interaction of traditions in Crimean architecture, and it still remains an open question. In light of recent political events and new archaeological findings, research on the mutual influence and interpenetration of architectural techniques and images in the Crimean architecture, move to a new level.
The Crimea has been an important link between North and South, East and West. The peninsula was a crossroad of trade routes and cultural contacts. Close ties between the Crimean peoples and the countries that had various diplomatic interests in the Peninsula have given rise to the monuments interesting from an artistic point of view.
The interaction of cultural traditions is traced in a number of buildings of different historical periods and of different architectural styles. The most remarkable synthesis of cultural phenomena in architecture of the peninsula is observed in the monuments of the medieval Crimea, such as the Church of St. John the Baptist in Kerch, the Palace of the Crimean khans in Bakhchisaray, and fortifications in the region of Kerch, Sudak and Sevastopol, religious and residential buildings of the Crimean cities. The works of the artists, who travelled across the peninsula, feature obvious parallelism. In this respect, the most striking case is the biography of the architect Aleviz Novi, who was detained by the Crimean Khan on the way from Italy to Moscow and made to work in the Palace of Bakhchisarai.
The report focuses on the analysis of the interaction of forms, methods and images in the architectural monuments of Crimea on the example of buildings of different typology.

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Piero di Cosimo (1462–1522) — a Florentine painter whose personality causes controversial opinions. During a long period, starting with G. Vasari (1511–1574), art historians regarded this master as a talented madman, “hermit” and “lover of solitude”, whose unlimited fantasy brought him to the creation of works that differ significantly from pictures of his contemporaries. Recently, however, such a point of view on the master’s personality is revised due to the new archive documents recently discovered.
The works of Piero di Cosimo demonstrate influence of Flemish art, which can be seen, for example, in a tendency toward naturalism, narrative and love to details. These elements are combined with the desire of elegance, grace and courtesy, corresponding with tastes that prevailed at the court of Medici.
Attention to details also reflects the fact that Piero di Cosimo was a miniaturist. Theatrical elements can be best seen in the compositions on mythological theme (in particular, it is true for the “Liberation of Andromeda”, ca. 1510–1513, The Uffizi, Florence; “A Satyr mourning over a Nymph”, ca. 1495, the National Gallery, London). His religious subjects are more discreet and solemn and close to the Florentine tradition.
Despite the prominent role of imagination, Piero di Cosimo uses specific sources, first of all, literary, and creatively transforms them. The same is seen in his portraits (“Portrait of Simonetta Vespucci”, ca. 1480, Musée Condé, Chantilly). The goal of this paper is to show the links between the work of the Florentine master and literature.

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The “Vision of St. Bernard”, now in the Florentine Badia, commissioned by Piero del Pugliese for the church of Santa Maria al Sepolcro (Le Campora) is one of the most important Filippino Lippi’s works of the 1480s and embodies the best qualities of his style of this period.
The appearance of Madonna to the St. Bernard of Clairveaux was a common subject for the Florentine art since the mid-Trecento. The iconography remains almost unchanged from the polyptych made by Matteo di Pacino (1360s, Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence) to the 1520s, when Domenico Puligo terminated a succession of the large altarpieces depicting this subject (Walters Art Museum, Baltimore). Filippino’s version seems to be added to this tradition; nevertheless, it contains some details which substantially shift focus of the theological interpretation of the vision and change emotional coloring of the scene to make it more intimate and lyrical.
Thanks to an abundance of outstanding narrative details, the citations made from the Lippi’s altarpiece by other painters are easy to discover. At least, twice its central group was reproduced on the predella panels created in the early 16th century by the artists close to Filippino: Maestro del Serumido (the main altarpiece of the Oratory San Sebastiano dei Bini in Via Romana, Florence) and Raffaellino del Garbo (“Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints”, Santo Spirito, the Segni Chapel, Florence). The isolated figure of St. Bernard on the Segni altarpiece goes back to the Filippino’s work too, so it is incorporated in the sacra conversazione. Furthermore, among the workshop drawings there is a sketch, which combines the sacra conversazione scheme with the scene of the vision, and other remarkable elements of the Badia altarpiece (Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe degli Uffizi, Florence, inv. 175F).
The minor Florentine artists of the late Quattrocento often demonstrate a disposition to reproduce on altered scale the whole compositional solutions found in the master paintings of the city. Conside­rable quantity of the predella panels and painted paliotto, as well as cassone and spalliera paintings speak volumes for this phenomenon. One of them was “Vision of St. Bernard” by Filippino Lippi, which also remained relevant for the local tradition after a twenty-year period since it was finished.

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